Classroom Incidents Essay

A classroom incident is an unexpected event that occurs in a classroom causing disturbance or presenting a safety risk. A classroom incident can affect a teacher, a student or all the members of the classroom. There are many critical incidents that have occurred between teachers and students or among students. A critical classroom incident either spoils the student-student relationship or the teacher-student relationship. Past classroom incidents can offer important lessons that can be utilized in adopting the right ways of managing similar incidents in the future (Levin & Nolan, 2010). Incident related to cheating Adam reported his classmate Moses to the class teacher because of his cheating habit. Moses often copied the work of his classmates. Adam also notified the teacher that Moses was cheating in exams. During exams, he would collaborate with other students to exchange exam papers. Moses denied all the allegations. He said that Adam was only afraid of competition. However, it was a fact that Moses cheated in class work and in exams. He was spending most of his time perfecting the art of cheating rather than reading. The teacher was mad at Moses and decided to investigate the problem. However, he was unable to catch Moses or any other student cheating. Ways in which things went well or badly. Many things went the wrong way during the critical cheating incident. The teacher was frustrated by the cheating allegations. His frustration was even more when he couldn’t unearth and stop the cheating. The teacher’s inability to catch Moses and his company could tempt other students to cheat too. Moreover, the fact that some individuals were cheating was a blow to the trust of the students on the school’s examination system. Nevertheless, the same incident had some positive aspects. It is evident that Moses and his group were driven by the urge to achieve better results. They went into cheating in order to have good grades just like the rest of the students. The teacher was also able to establish the cheating problem which needed an urgent solution. Lessons learned from the incident. The cheating problem occurred because the student involved had realized that he had a task to deliver. He had to be successful in school. The teacher’s inability to unearth the root of the cause or to catch the students red handed shows that a different approach should have been applied. Incase of uncertainty, it is wiser not to rush for a solution. Instead, take your time and come up with the best tactic. The teacher should have thought of the benefits and consequences of his solution before going to the ground. May be transforming the cheating behavior would be better than simply deciding to punish the offenders. It can be concluded that cheating is a common incident in many classrooms and that it should be handled with care to avoid the effects of the failure to curb it. Similarly, every other classroom problem should be handled with caution (Walters & Frei 2007). Incident related to Rudeness During an afternoon class, a teacher wanted to check the assignment of Brown, one of his students. Brown responded rudely to the teachers request using inappropriate language. The teacher was frustrated. The other students watched in dismay. Brown was known due to his bad behavior and attitude. He never appreciated the importance of his fellow students and teachers. He felt superior and had a big ego. He always kept showing off. He would disregard warnings from prefects and teachers. Ways in which things went well or badly. The incident was wrong. The teacher felt disrespected by a student. He was mad because of the way Brown responded. Brown’s actions were against the values of the teacher-student relationship. At least the teacher should have been treated with his deserved respect. The rest of the class felt unappreciated. At least, Brown should have shown his uncontrollable ego out of the classroom. The students were also disappointed by Brown’s attitude. They felt rejected and abused. This critical incident had interfered with the right values of the student-student relationship. However, the same incident still has a positive side. The differences between the students were established. Brown had a desire to establish his own status although he followed the wrong route. His ego could be used to show that he had a low-esteem. He hid behind his rudeness and pretence to retain a sense of respect from the rest of the students. Brown’s behavior had a positive message to the other students. Since he avoided the other students, he had no friend. A friend would have helped him with the assignment. Lessons learned from the incident. The student was an attention seeker. He exploded once he got the attention of the entire class. The teacher was wise enough not to react harshly. The situation could have been worse if the teacher had lost his tempers. The class could have been treated to a more dramatic scene. It is important to note that students come from different backgrounds. Different students also have different levels of self esteem. Teachers should try to know the kind of students they are dealing with in order to handle them accordingly. There is a need to engage the students in order to know their grievances. Had the students reported Brown’s behavior in advance, the incident could have been avoided. According to Dixie (2003), counseling is always applicable as a good method to discard bad morals. Brown could have been assisted through counseling. References Dixie, G. (2003). Managing your classroom. London [u. a. ]: Continuum. Levin, J. , & Nolan, J. F. (2010). Principles of classroom management: A professional decision-making model. Boston: Pearson. Walters, J. , & Frei, S. (2007). Managing classroom behavior and discipline. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.

How Will Ethical Issues Affect Leadership in a Business

Contemporary and Pervasive Issues â€Å"How will ethical issues affect leadership in a business? † Word Count: 5671 In this essay I am going to discuss how ethical issues can affect leadership in a business. In order to answer this question the essay will start by giving a brief introduction into the two topics; leadership and business ethics. I will then aim to successfully link them by considering the argument of whether leaders should concern themselves with ethical issues or whether making as much money as possible should be their main consideration. Leadership has many different meanings and there have been numerous different classification systems used to define the dimensions of leadership. Infact as Stogdill (1974) pointed out, â€Å"there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are people who have tried to define it. † One popular definition used for this subject is that â€Å"leadership may be considered as the process (act) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement†(Stogdill, 1974). This definition suggests that it is not a characteristic but is an event that takes place between a leader and his or her followers and that there are three aspects to leadership. Firstly, it involves influence in that leaders induce their followers to behave in a certain way. The second aspect is that leadership occurs in a group context and finally that leadership includes attention to goals, which a leader must direct their followers to achieve. Over the years there have been many studies and theories formed on leadership. The first, which dominated until the late 1940’s, was the Trait Approach, which focused on leaders and not followers. It assumed that leaders had certain traits, such as intelligence and integrity and that they are born and not made. However, this approach failed to take situations into account and recent research has proven that traits alone cannot account for effectiveness. Following this was the style approach, which focuses on what leaders do and how they act towards subordinates rather than characteristics. This era defines leadership styles as either Autocratic, democratic or laissez faire. However, this approach fails to find which of these leadership styles is most effective in every situation. Following this was the situational and contingency theories, which assume that different situations demand different types of leadership. However it assumes that people can learn to become effective leaders and does not adequately explain the link between styles and situation. The Situational theory ‘relates four leadership styles; Directing, Coaching, Supporting and delegating to followers readiness for them† (Gill, 2006:48). However, the model assumes both flexibility of style and the ability to diagnose the situation and the style that is needed. In 1980’s the New Leadership approach was introduced, which compromises visionary, charismatic and transformational leadership theories. â€Å"Transformational leadership occurs when leaders raise peoples motivation to act and create a sense of higher purpose† (Gill, 2006:36). Similarly and published around the same time was the theory of Charismatic leadership, who act in unique ways that have specific charismatic effects on their followers. This stage provides a broader view of leadership that augments other models and places a strong emphasis on leaders needs, values and morals. However, â€Å"due to the wide range that it covers it lacks conceptual clarity and it is difficult to define the parameters of transformational leadership† (Northouse, 2004:185). Finally, in the late 1990’s Post-charismatic and Post-transformational theories emerged, which focuses on leadership as a community and both leaders and followers working together. Leadership is a process that is similar to management in many ways and many of the functions of management are included in the definition of leadership. This was argued by Yukl (1989), who said â€Å"when managers are involved in influencing a group to meet its goals, they are involved in leadership. When leaders are involved in planning, organizing, staffing and controlling, they re involved in management. Both processes involve influencing a group of individuals toward a goal attainment. † Both management and leadership involve influence, working with people, meeting goals and many other similar functions. However, there is a distinct difference between leadership and management and the main functions of the two are quite dissimilar. It was argued by Kotter (1990) that the â€Å"function of management is to provide order and consistency to organizations, whereas the primary function of leadership is to produce change and movement. † Whilst managers plan and budget, a leader creates a vision and sets strategies, instead of controlling and problem solving a leader motivates and inspires his followers. In addition to this, Bennis and Nanus (1985) made the distinction very clear, â€Å"managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right things. † Although it argued that the two are very different it is for this reason that both are needed for an organization to be a success. Without management outcomes can be meaningless or misdirected and without leadership the outcome can be stifling and bureaucratic. This was the opinion of Warner Burke (1986:68), who said that â€Å"For clarity of goals and direction, managers need leaders. For indispensable help in reaching goals, leaders need managers. † A further question that is often raised on the topic of leadership is whether leaders are born or made? Whilst some would argue that â€Å"It is not a matter of whether leaders are born or made. † They are born and made† (Conger 2004), it is a topic that has caused great debate. Many would argue that leadership is innate (inborn) and that the character, style and competence needed to be a leader is infact genetic and it cannot be developed. However, others have argued that leadership is not down to genetics alone but that it can infact be developed over a period of time through environment and experiences. This is the opinion argued by Winston (Winston 2003), who says that â€Å"we are not merely the product of our genes: environment has a huge impact but in a mysterious way. † A further aspect to this question is whether leadership can be taught. There are many opinions on this matter but the â€Å"tendency is towards agreeing that, while little if anything can be taught, it can be learnt through development, growth and practise† (Gill, 2006:272). A business operates according to the vision and values of its leader. A leader has many roles within an organization, which can be key to its long-term success. The first of these is to provide an overall direction by â€Å"defining and communicating a meaningful and attractive vision of the future and a mission through which the organization will pursue it† (Gill, 2006:96). This direction which may stem a long way into the future will need to consider competitors, changes in tastes and current standing in the market. In relation to this it is a leader's responsibility to create a strong and positive organizational culture with its followers having shared vision and values, which can result in an effective organization. A further role of a leader is to â€Å"develop, get commitment to and ensure the successful implementation of strategies† (Gill, 2006:176). This is one of the most important roles for a leader and involves them planning where they want to be in the future and how they are going to get there, for example by acquisitions or moving into new geographical markets. Another role of a leader in business is to empower employees to be able to do what needs to be done. In order to do this a leader must give them the knowledge, skills, authority and freedom to manage themselves and be accountable for their behavior. If a leader successfully empowers his employs it can lead to both job satisfaction and enhanced organizational performance in many ways. Similarly it is an important role of a leader to influence, motivate and inspire employees to reach the companies goals. One of the key factors that will determines whether it is achieved or falters will be the ability of the leader in these three areas. Finally if an organization is to continue to prosper, people development must be high on a leader's agenda, by identifying the most talented people coming through and making sure that they are developed for major roles in the future. Ensuring that there is a continued stream of talent developed is a key factor in sustainable progress and achievement. An effective leader has the ability to successfully carry out all of these roles. The second topic that this essay involves is business ethics, which has been described by some as ‘a passing fashion which will come and go and can therefore be safely ignored or dismissed† (Vallance, 1995: 4) However, business scandals of the late 1980’s such as Guiness and Blue Arrow and the results of these have made businesses aware of the importance of their reputation and the need to think seriously about ethical issues. There have been numerous definitions of ethics, which involves systemizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour and includes principles and values of what is fair or unfair and proper or improper. It has been argued that â€Å"there is only one ethics, one set of rules of morality, one code that of individual behaviour in which the same rules apply to everyone alike† (Drucker 2007). A popular definitions is that â€Å"Ethics deals with values, with good and bad with right and wrong, we cannot avoid involvement in ethics, for what we do-and what we don’t do- is always a possible subject of ethical evaluation† (Singer, 1993: v). There are various theories and approaches to ethics and ethical decision-making but the two major view points that appear are consequentailism and non-consequentialism. Consequentialism is where â€Å"ethical decisions are based primarily on calculating the good in terms of consequences† (Preston, 2007: 36). The most widely accepted form of this is Utilitarianism, which was introduced by Jeremy Bentham in the late 19th century. This theory emphasises happiness or utility as a desirable goal for human choice or action and argues that moral rules should seek to secure â€Å"the greatest good for the greatest number of people† (Preston, 2007: 36). However, there have been some objections to this theory and the question as to how happiness and utility can be measured. It also works against the interests of â€Å"minorities and groups that do not measure up to the criteria of usefulness and can justify the violation of human rights† (Preston, 2007: 36). An example of this is the exclusion of a disabled child from a school as they are disruptive. This would be justified on utilitarian grounds as to leave such a disruptive child in the class would not be beneficial to the majority of students. The second of these points that occurs in ethical theory is non-consequential. This â€Å"enjoins us to do the right thing, simply because it is the right thing, intrinsically† (Preston, 2007: 40). The most influential figure promoting this view was Immanuel Kant. He argued that as â€Å"individuals we intuitively know what is right or wrong, through the categorical imperatives, which are: Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always as an end and never as a means only †¢ Act only on the maxim through which you can at the same time will that it be a universal law. †¢ Act only so that the will through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as universally law giving – refer ence† (Preston 2007:41) This Kantian theory has been very influential, especially concerning the debate of rights and justice due to the importance that it places on every individual and because it is not open to persuasion by pragmatic considerations. However, there have been some criticisms to Kants approach as he places too much reliance on human rationality. Furthermore, it does not provide an answer to the problem of how to decide between two conflicting duties and how to obey different bur equally absolute rules. For example, ‘do not break promises’ and ‘do not kill’ are absolute rules, however it is possible for a situation to occur where these rules conflict and that by not breaking a promise, someone is killed. The focus of this essay is on Business ethics in particular. Though the theories that have been mentioned are relevant, they are â€Å"concerned primarily with personal ethics and do not address directly the kind of ethical problems that arise within a business context† (Vallance, 1995:4). Within an organisation, ethics is seen as everyone’s business and can be complex and have more than one meaning. Firstly, it is the application of general ethical rules to business behaviour and secondly, it can be the rules of business by which business activities are judged. Business Ethics can be defined as â€Å"coming to know what is right or wrong in the workplace and doing what is right – this is in regards to effects of products/services and in relationship with stakeholders’’ (McNamara, 2006:7) and can cover a wide range of aspects from quality and treatment of employees to pricing. When it comes to business having an ethical responsibility, many would argue that this is not the case. Indeed Milton Friedman (Friedman, 1970) said â€Å"only people can have responsibilities. A corporation is an artificial person and in this sense may have artificial responsibilities, but â€Å"business† as a whole cannot be said to have responsibilities, even in this vague sense†. With this in mind, it would also be argued that it is of little importance for leaders to consider ethical issues when making decisions. Infact, leaders who have ethical consciences have been described as â€Å"unwitting puppets of the intellectual forces that have been undermining the basis of a free society these past decades† (Friedman, 1970). This argument is that a business and therefore its leaders have one purpose, and that is to make as much profit as possible, with everything else being secondary. Freidman said, â€Å"He (the executive) is an employee of the owners of the business. He has direct responsibility to his employers. That responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their desires, which generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom† (Friedman, 1970). He believed that this was the case for all businesses with the only exceptions being schools and hospitals where a leader's objective would be the rendering of services. One of the beliefs of this argument is that â€Å"ethical responsibility as preached and practised by many marks an acceptance and endorsement of views and demands mostly presented by anti business groups that are hostile to the market economy and are far from representing the general view of the average consumer† (Andersen, 2004: 22). In addition to this fact a further problem is that in order for a leader to have an ethical conscience it usually comes at some cost to the business and therefore is not in the interest of the owners of the organization. An example of this is that a leader would refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price increase would benefit both the corporation and its owners. A similar example is that ay leaders use great amounts of money and resources to reduce pollution beyond the amount that is required by law in order to meet its responsibility to the environment and gain a reputation as being an environmentally friendly company. This was a measure taken by Satellite broadcaster BSkyB who have been carbon neutral since May 2006 through a combination of using renewable energy and offsetting its remaining emissions, but at a cost to the company. In each of these examples and in the case of other et hical activities a great amount of money is either spent or compromised. Many would argue that by doing this a leader is spending other people’s money for a general social interest, which could be viewed as extremely unethical. For example, carrying out an ethical activity that would have a high cost, such as reducing emission would reduce profits and therefore stockholder would see a reduce in their returns on investments. In addition to this if a leaders ethical actions raise the price to customers, he is spending the customers' money and if the cost of the leader's actions have to result in lowering the wages of some employees, he is spending their money. In these cases it would be fair to say that not only would it be having a detrimental effect on the company profits but would also have a negative and unethical effect on both internal and external stakeholders, who may desert the company for a competitor that less scrupulous in exercising their social responsibilities. In addition to this it means that a leader in effect becomes a public employee even though he remains in reality an employee of a private company. There is a further problem with leaders deciding that a company is to become more ethically aware as it involves great change in the way a company practices, its values and its organizational culture. Many of these actions that need to be taken to implement an ethical practice can incur increased costs that may not be recouped through increased sales and have no guarantee of returns. Furthermore, some decisions and choices made with an ethical conscience can result in short term negative impacts such as a decrease in sales, revenue and profit, increased cost for employee welfare and a decrease in stock prices. Moreover, â€Å"the vast majority of companies are still failing to get their message across† (The Guardian, 2004). With these costs in mind, especially in the current economic climate, the importance of a leader implementing an ethical culture to a business could be questioned. In addition to this leading a business ethically may involve â€Å"compromising short term wins for the sake of a more long term view† (Andersen, 2004: 22). This is not beneficial for a leader who is responsible for immediate results, particularly if the short-term wins that are compromised due to ethical issues risk financial loss or even immediate failure. This may mean that a leader may have to accept higher prices on goods, parts and manufacturing in order to remain ethical. An example of this is that Tesco, the UK’s largest supermarket was using an Indian sweatshop to produce its clothes, which was paying its workers just 16p an hour. This supplier was changed in order for the company to appear more ethical and inturn cost Tesco money. This can be particularly hard in a market where there is a large amount of competition at both a national and international level. In order to compete a company needs to be able to offer the lowest price possible to its consumers but in order to keep its ethical stance a company can not compromise on its quality of suppliers and raw materials and therefore sees increased costs. Another consideration is that â€Å"when the corporation grows beyond the direct influence of its leader, we must reckon with the ethical consequence of size and geographical deployment. The control and employment of all policies, but especially that established for corporate ethics, becomes difficult† (Andrews, 1989: 7). This demonstrates that as long as an organisation remains small enough to be directly influenced by the chief executives leadership, certain results, such as ethical approach can be traced to his determination that they occur. However, as the â€Å"organisation grows and becomes decentralised with worldwide operations the power and influence that the Chief Executive has is reinterpreted and diffused† (Andrews, 1989: 260). As a result leaders of have to be appointed in each location and these persons may not share the determination and beliefs of their chief executive on ethical matters. As a result it is hard to standardise a whole company's ethical approach. In relation to this cultural differences and different business practices around the world can present challenges for businesses that are trying to be ethical. Having considered the above argument there are some flaws to Friedman’s approach. He suggests that a leader should concentrate on profit alone as long as it is within the law. However, the law does not define what is morally right and what is legal may be unethical. Many people would argue that this is an important point as ‘good business ethics promotes good business. This was the findings of some well-known authorities such as Baumhart, Brener and Molander, who believed that only those businesses that conduct activities on ethical grounds can develop on a long-term basis. This is also the stakeholder view that businesses will not make money if they do not take heed of their stakeholders; CSR is looking after your stake holders and is good business practice. This is the reason why it is important that leaders are not merely concerned with profit but also with promoting an ethical practise. Firstly, â€Å"leaders who follow the principles of ethics in the conduct of business, motivates others also to follow the same principles† (Paliwal, 2006: 10). This can improve both employees and the organizations motivation and morale, which was discussed earlier as one of the main roles of a leader. This is because conducting business in an ethical manner can produce a feeling of ‘doing things right’ and this can â€Å"become an almost tangible positive ambience within the organisation and can create a culture with a sense of community and belonging for employees,† (Andersen, 2004: 7). The result of this is increased loyalty and productivity, which can result in an improved in competitive advantage. An example of a company that treats its employees well and is benefited in return is John Lewis. All 69,000 employees of the company have a share in it and despite seeing pre tax profits fall by 26% this year they still paid their employees bonuses worth 13% of their salaries. In addition to this if a leader and a company demonstrates that it is unwilling to compromise its ethical values then they are regarded as trustworthy by both customers and their employees and this can promote productivity, innovation, employee development and increase employee attraction, which are again some of the main roles of a leader. This is vital to leaders as a study by Covey discovered that â€Å"the average corporation loses half its employees within four years, and the cost of recruiting, training and getting new ones up to speed can be detrimental to an organisation. (Andersen, 2004: 9). Also it is the â€Å"leaders of a company that are responsible for its conduct and it is their actions that determine the company's ethical standards† (Andrews, 1989: 72). If a leader's strategy is to define and communicate ethical position then it can act as a competitive advantage as it is an effective way of ensuring customer loyalty and also the company’s ability to at tract new customers. Customers are now more discerning and better educated than ever and want a product that not only serves its purpose but also is produced by an environmentally responsible company. If a consumer understands and sees tangible evidence that they are contributing to something beyond the profits a company and its owner, it is a strong motivator for both their custom and their loyalty. An example of a leader who understood the importance of an ethical company and an ethical product was Dame Anita Roddick, founder of The Body Shop. The company was one of the first to prohibit the use of ingredients tested on animals, promote fair trade and also channelled a share of the cost of the product back to the original producer of the raw material. By doing this she created a unique selling point as an ethical company and therefore a company that consumers are proud to buy from. Furthermore, if an organisation is known to be ethical it gives the impression to the customer that they too will be fairly treated as â€Å"when ethical conduct is displayed it puts some kind of trust and confidence in relationship† (Paliwal, 2006: 9). An example of this is that prices reflect the real value of what is being bought. As previously mention, being ethical can also help to attract new customer, who will hopefully become loyal in time. This is because customers are exposed to so many marketing campaigns that they are wary of which they should trust. However, if a leader has successfully managed to position an organisation with having ethical values and integrity then customers uncertainty is reduced, they are more trusting of the company and less afraid of purchasing its products, which meets leaders objectives. This was proved in a survey conducted in New York in 1995, which indicated, â€Å"when quality, service and price are equal, 90% claimed that the best reputation for social responsibility would determine their decision to buy. † (Andersen, 2004: 12). Therefore an ethical company should see an increase in sales, which is always part of a leader's strategy. A further factor for leaders to consider is that studies have shown a â€Å"positive link between being ethical and improved financial performance (Maignan, 1987)†, which is ultimately the main aim of an organisation. Ethics in business can be related to quality of management, quality of products, innovativeness and good responsibility towards the community, all of which lead to admiration, good will and a good reputation for the company. An example of leaders who saw the importance of a good ethical reputation are Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield, founders of Ben & Jerry's, who set up the sustainable Caring Dairy initiative to helps farmers and also took measures to reduce energy use. According to Ferrell, Maignan and Loe â€Å"companies that are perceived positively in the market place perform better than others. † (Andersen, 2004: 13). Although this statement and other studies could be questioned as to what extent admiration is due to ethics, it can be said that an ethical approach to business is what contributes to a positive perception and reputation and can therefore be linked with financial improvements. A further example of this is that IAG (Insurance Australia Group Ltd), who work with neighborhoods to improve their facilities and reduce crime. This not only gives them a good reputation as a company that cares about the environment but also benefits them in a second way as it reduces insurance claims and therefore reduces their payouts and equally benefits both the community and the company. Finally, leaders need to consider being a company with ethical values because investor’s and shareholders are now using a company’s ethical stance as criteria to evaluate investments and stocks. An example of this is the â€Å"specifically designed sub index of the London Stock Exchange, the FTSE4Good (FTSE – Financial Times Stock Exchange). † (Andersen, 2004: 19). To be included in this index, constituents must be screened according to the criteria of the FTSE4Good, which covers environmental sustainability, social issues and stakeholder relations and human rights. Therefore having a favourable ethical profile can attract investors and not having one can deter them. In addition to this, for the government ethical standards of a business are now a key factor in the procurement of grants and influence. Having looked at these benefits, a leader also needs to consider the strength of being ethical by looking at the dangers and probable penalties of unethical business behaviour. As a society we have access to a wide variety of information on organisations. As a result, there are constantly court cases against companies for unethical behaviour, for example in 2007 cruise company Carnival was being sued over several cases of mistreatment of workers and the covering up of environmental damage. Settling these claims can cost billions of pounds, can lead to bankruptcy and the damage to reputation can be irreparable. A further example of this is that if a customer is treated unfairly then this bad reputation will be passed on by word of mouth. In relation to this a further factor that leaders need to consider when creating a business strategy is that unethical behaviour in manufacturing can lead to bad reputation. An example of this is the recent case with Primark, who were discovered to be using suppliers in Southern India who were using child labour. Although they claimed that they were unaware of this situation it still created a great deal of bad publicity for the company. Negative publicity can equate to decreased competitive advantage, increased costs as companies have to increase public relations and advertising. It can also have effects on sales, profits, morale and the day to day running of the business. In addition to this a bad reputation cannot be easily changed and it consumers suspicion of a company’s intentions and future actions. In relation to this â€Å"journalists writing about companies tend to fall victim of the so called Halo effect† (Andersen, 2004: 19), which means that a company that has a bad reputation tend to be seen negatively whatever they do. As the media have the power to make or break companies it is essential that leaders ensure that they are ethical and that there reputations remain intact. In this sense ethical behavior can be seen as a form of insurance against regulatory acts. An example of a company that have taken this on board is Mark’s and Spencer, who have recently launched a new Per Una lingerie range that is â€Å"carbon neutral† and is produced in an eco-factory as they become more successful in listening to what their customers want. A final problem to leaders of having an unethical approach is that there are always pressure groups and special interest group such as Greenpeace waiting to launch global campaigns against companies that act unethically, which can affect both the organisation and its chances of survival. An example of this is that in 2003 the Barclay twins, who were the two new leaders of Littlewoods mail order and clothing store, withdrew the companies membership of the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI), which was put in place to stop companies from using child or forced labor. This not only resulted in the sacking employees but was also provoked large volumes of criticism for charities, unions and government ministers all of which impacted on the company's reputation. This increased government interest can also lead to regulations that create rigid trade and less freedom. Having looked at the two topics: leadership and business ethics in some detail, it is clear to see that there is an important link between the two. A business operates according to the visions and values of its leader and whilst some may see business ethics as a fad leaders need to be aware that there is a high demand for ethical behaviour in our society today. It is fair to say that the objective of most companies, as Friedman said is to earn as much money as possible. Therefore, as a leader, that person is an employee of the owners of the business and so has a primary responsibility to them to conduct the business in line with their wishes. In addition to this there is a strong argument as to why a leader should not consider ethical issues as a vital part of their job. Many people share the skepticisms of Milton Friedman and Adam Smith's about the benefits that can be expected from â€Å"those who affected to trade for the public good. † This is a fact that has been discussed in the essay and the implementing a practicing ethical business can cost a company, for example, spending money on reducing pollution costs and choosing more expensive but ethical suppliers. In Friedman’s book Capitalism and Freedom, he sums up this argument by saying that â€Å"there is one and only one ethical responsibility of business–to use it resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud† (Friedman, 1970). However, the other side of this argument is that in order for organization to survive in a competitive and changing environment, leaders must develop strong ethical standards and successfully implement them throughout the company. By trading in an ethical manner a leader will see a wide variety of benefits and effects on business practices, such as increasing sales, retaining employees, reducing litigation and in some cases increasing a company's profit. In addition to this, another â€Å"testament to its viability is that despite being describes as a passing phase, business ethics which emerged in the 1970’s has constantly gained more and more awareness and support, making it one of the longest surviving management fads† (Andersen, 2004: 24). Having considered this fact and all of the benefits, it is a hard for a leader to argue against the merits of an ethical approach to business. Overall, I believe that in order to remain competitive and to insure the survival of a business an organization must respect and regard their social and ethical responsibility as well as maintaining profitability as a central goal. It is fair to say that good ethics is good business since nowadays it can be directly linked to the company's success. Moreover, good ethics is good business because business partners, suppliers and customers expect and presevere business relationships that are upright and responsible. This is a factor that is going to become increasingly more important as consumers become more aware of ethical issues and the need for them to be considered, e. g. the increase in consumer awareness of carbon footprint. Therefore an ethical reputation will be important to the success of a company and it is a leader's job to ensure that ethics is part of a companies strategy and is successfully implemented. References †¢ K. R. Andrews, 1989, Ethics in Practice: Managing the Moral Corporation, Harvard Business School Publishing Division, pg 7, 71, 72, 260 †¢ R Gill, 2006, Theory and practice of Leadership, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg. 36, 48, 96, 176, 272 †¢ Stogdill, R. M (1974), Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research. New York Free Press: quoted in P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Practice, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 2 †¢ P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Practice, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 185 †¢ P. F. Drucker, 2007, The Practise of Management, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd; 2Rev Ed edition: quoted in M. Paliwal, 2006, Business Ethics; New Age International Ltd, pg 4 †¢ Kotter J. P (1990) A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York: Free Press: quoted in P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Practice, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 8 †¢ Bennis, W. G & Nanus, B (1985) Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row: quoted in P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Practice, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 8 †¢ Burke, W. W (1986) Leadership as empowering others. San Francisco, CA:Jossey –Bass, pg 68: quoted in R Gill, 2006, Theory and practice of Leadership, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 27 †¢ Conger, J. A (2004) Developing leadership capability: What’s inside the black box. Academy of management executive, 18 (3), pg 136 †¢ Winston, R 2003, Human Instinct Paper presented at the sixth Annual Leadership conference, Ross – on – Wye, 23rd-24th September: quoted in R Gill, 2006, Theory and practice of Leadership, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg. 73 †¢ P. Singer, 1993, A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell, p, v. N. Preston, 2007, Understanding Ethics, Federation Press; 3rd Revised edition, pg 36, 40, 41, 42 †¢ E. Vallance, 1995, Business Ethics at Work, Cambridge university Press, pg 4 †¢ Milton Freidman (1970) ‘The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits’ quoted in T. Beauchamp and N. Bowie, 2004, Ethical Theory and Business, 7th ed . , London, Pearson, p. 51. †¢ M. Paliwal, 2006, Business Ethics; New Age International Ltd, pg 7, 9, 10 †¢ McNamara, 2006: quoted in M. Paliwal, 2006, Business Ethics; New Age International Ltd, pg 7 †¢ T. Donaldson, Ethics in Business: A New Look: quoted in M Paliwal, 2006, Business Ethics; New Age International Ltd, pg 9 †¢ Yukl, G. A (1989), Leadership in organisations, (2nd ed), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall: quoted in P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Practice, SAGE Publications Ltd, pg 10 †¢ B. Andersen, ASQ Mission, Bringing Business Ethics to Life: Achieving Corporate Social Responsibility, Pg 7, 9, 12, 13, 19, 22,24 †¢ Maignin, 1987: quoted in B. Andersen, ASQ Mission, Bringing Business Ethics to Life: Achieving Corporate Social Responsibility, Pg 13 †¢ www. FTSE4Good. com http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2004/nov/02/ethicalbusiness. money, â€Å"Companies ethical reports branded ineffective†, Tuesday 2nd November 2004, Oliver Balch †¢ http://www. cityam. com/index. php? news=16306, â€Å"Tesco in sweatshop scandal. † 26/6/08 †¢ http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2008/jun/24/primark. retail, â€Å"Is this the end for Primark†, The Guardian, Tuesday 24th June 2008, Leo Hickman †¢ http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2003/feb/01/ethicalshopping. globalisationâ€Å"Littlewood’s drops ethical trading code†, The Guardian, Saturday 1st February 2003, Simon Bowers and Julia Finch http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2007/sep/02/5, â€Å"Named and shames, cities ethical dunces†, The Observer, Sunday 2nd September 2007, Heather Stewart and Zoe Wood †¢ http://www. guardian. co. uk/lifeandstyle/2008/jul/25/ethicalfashion, â€Å"Can fashion play fair? †, The Guardian, Friday 25th July 2008, Leo Hickman Bibliography †¢ K. R. Andrews, 1989, Ethics in Practice: Managing the Moral Corporation, Harvard Business School Publishing Division †¢ Simon Blackburn, 2001, Ethics: a very short introduction, Oxford press Inc New York †¢ R Gill, 2006, Theory and practice of Leadership, SAGE Publications Ltd P. G Northouse, 2004, Leadership Theory and Prac tice, SAGE Publications Ltd, †¢ Conger, J. A (2004) Developing leadership capability: What’s inside the black box. Academy of management executive, 18 (3) †¢ E. Vallance, 1995, Business Ethics at Work, Cambridge university Press †¢ M Paliwal, 2006, Business Ethics; New Age International Ltd †¢ P. Singer, 1993, A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell †¢ B. Andersen, 2004, Bringing Business Ethics to Life: Achieving Corporate Social Responsibility, ASQ Mission †¢ J. Gallos, 2008, Business Leadership, Jossey –Bass, A Wiley Imprint K Grint, 2005, Leadership: Limits and Possibilities, Palgrave Macmillan †¢ R. N Kanungo, M Mendonca, 1996, Ethical Dimensions of Leadership, SAGE Publications Ltd †¢ B. Harvey, 1994, Business Ethics: A European Approach, Prentice Hall International UK Ltd †¢ P. Griseri, 1998, Managing Values: Ethical Change in Organisations, Macmillan Business †¢ J. N. Behrman, 1988, Essays on Ethics in Business and the Professions, Prentice Hall †¢ V. E. Henderson, 1992, What’s Ethical in Business? , McGraw – Hill Inc †¢ P. Wright, Managerial Leadership, Routledge †¢ N. Preston, 2007, Understanding Ethics, Federation Press; 3rd Revised edition.

Eye Witness Testimony Essay

â€Å"Eyewitness testimony is so unreliable that it should never be used in convicting criminals†. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term. It refers to; an account given by person(s) of an event they’ve witnessed. Eyewitness testimony is admissible in a court of law to assist in the conviction of individuals. In 1976, the Devlin report examined over 2000 identity parades in the U. K. Of the 2000 parades, 45% resulted in a suspect being identified and out of these, 82% were eventually convicted of a crime. In over 300 cases, the eyewitness testimony was the sole â€Å"evidence† used in conviction. 4% of these 300 cases resulted in criminal convictions. The significance of eyewitness testimony was highlighted in this report and resulted in much more research being undertaken. Cohen describes â€Å"erroneous eyewitness testimony† as being the â€Å"leading cause of wrongful conviction†. The multi store /Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The model attempts to identify the process that a stimulus must go through to become a retrievable memory. After being criticised for its supposed simplicity, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the working memory model. Both of these models propose that memory is a complex phenomenon that must go through numerous stages to become an accurately recalled memory. It is this process that offers explanation into the complexity of memory and the many areas that may result in memory confabulation. The Psychology of Rumour study by Allport & postman’s (examined latter) also alludes to memory being more complex than previously thought and strengthens the theory that memory is a process as opposed to a simplistic film. Sir Frederic Bartlett, (1932) introduced the theory of â€Å"Reconstructive memory† & â€Å"schemas† to Psychology. Schemas where defined by Mike Cardwell as; â€Å"packages of information† or â€Å"unconscious mental structures†. These mental structures are acquired through our experiences, or as a result of our expectations and cultural norms. Bartlett proposed that people use schemas constantly to complete tasks and to assist in making sense of our surroundings. The theory of schemas also suggests that there are gaps in a person’s memory that are filled with confabulated information when reconstructed. Sir Bartlett (1973) devised an experiment to investigate the effects of schemas on people’s memories. Twenty participants read a story called; â€Å"The War of the Ghosts†. The story was culturally different western literature, and was difficult for them to comprehend. After some time, the participants were asked to repeatedly recall the story in as much detail as possible. After recalling the same story six times, once even a year later, participants accidentally shortened the story from 330 words to an average of 180. Participants also altered parts of it to better suit their westernized culture. A conclusion of this experiment is that Memory recall is influenced by our schemas of cultural background and pre-existing knowledge. The experiment has been criticised for a lack of objectivity, being lax on variable control and casual conditions. However, the experimenter’s findings were also strengthened by Cromberg et al whom in 1996 interviewed people one year after plane crash. Of the 193 questioned, 55% falsely said that they had seen the plane hit the building and 59% inaccurately reported that a fire had started immediately on impact. Allport and Postman (1947) conducted a study titled: â€Å"Psychology of Rumour† with participants who were all white. They were shown a picture of an argument between a black man and a white man on a train. The white man is holding a razor and threatening the black man aggressively. The participants were divided into groups of seven. One participant from each group was shown the picture and asked to describe it to the second participant, who described it to the third, and so forth. Over half the participants who received the final description reported that the black man, not the white was holding the razor. This was false and shows that memory is susceptible to alteration by our own biases and prejudices within society. This experiment has been at the forefront of the interface between law and psychology. The findings have been repeatedly relayed in courts of law to express the unreliability of eyewitness testimony. However, inaccurate accounts of the procedures and implications of the study have been substantially misunderstood and distorted. Language is very important in eyewitness testimony; the way that memory is retrieved from a witness strongly affects what that person recalls. Loftus proposed that witnesses could accept false information which would dramatically affect the reliability of their testimony. This is called: â€Å"misinformation acceptance† and May happen in a post event situation such as being interviewed. Loftus believed some interviews contained â€Å"leading questions†. A leading question is defined as a question that is phrased in a way as to influence or prompt a specific form of answer. To test weather leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony, Loftus and palmer (1974) conducted the: â€Å"Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction† experiment. Forty five American students were split into 5 subgroups. After being shown various car collisions on slides that were dependant variables for each group, Participants were instructed to answer questions on what they had witnessed. The groups where asked to estimate the speed of the cars before they either: â€Å"hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted†. Each subgroup was asked the same question but with different verbs (the independent variable. ) A week later participants were also asked questions such as; â€Å"Did you see any broken glass? † when none such existed. The findings of this experiment were that the verb used to describe the collision affected the participants speed estimate given. The Biasing questions which they answered systematically affected the participant’s memory of the accident. The participants in the â€Å"smashed† condition reported the highest speeds, followed by â€Å"collided†, â€Å"bumped†, â€Å"hit†, and â€Å"contacted† in descending order. The â€Å"smashed† group also had more participants reporting to have seen glass when there was none. This experiment shows that memory is easily distorted by questioning techniques and information can be accepted post event causing confabulated memory. Strengths of this experiment are that it was conducted within a controlled environment and has serious implications for interviewing witnesses. However there is weakness’s to the experiment such all participants were students and not a wide range of people. Also, the collisions where viewed on video not in real life. Videos may lack the emotional impact caused when witnessing a real-life accident Loftus et al (1978) proposed that emotion can affect memory. Loftus stated that emotional arousal during an event can lead to a reduction in accurate memory recall. Loftus et al conducted an experiment of the effect of emotion on memory by showing two films of an armed robbery to participants. One film was violent, the other was nonviolent. They then tested the participant’s memories for details of what they had witnessed. The findings showed that the high-arousal version of a young boy being shot and falling to the floor, led to impaired memory recall. This was when compared to the low-arousal version. These findings show that emotions can affect memory. This experiment is lab based and findings may be difficult to transfer into real-life environment. However, being conducted in a controlled environment gives it enhanced ecological validity. Peters (1988) supported Yerkes & Dodson that illustrated an optimum level of emotional arousal enhanced memory. Peters found that when receiving inoculations in a clinic (an anxiety generating event) patients found it difficult in accurately identifying the nurse who issued their jab. One can conclude that this was due to the high levels of arousal surrounding the participant during the time of the jab. There is conflicting evidence weather emotions strengthen or weaken the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies. However, both theories support the idea that emotion has an effect on memory. Eastbrook (1959) proposed that arousal narrows the focus of attention. This causes improved memory for central details but impaired memory for peripheral details. Another factor that affects the reliability of eyewitness testimony while witnessing an event is the: â€Å"weapons focus affect†. Weapon focus refers to the concentration of attention on a weapon by the witnesses of a crime. Loftus et al claimed that this diverted their attention and resulted in a reduction of remembering many other details of the crime or criminal. Loftus (1979) conducted an experiment to study whether the presence of a weapon in an emotionally heightened state could affect eyewitness memory. Participants believed they were waiting to participate in a memory study and were waiting outside a laboratory. As they waited, participants in â€Å"condition 1† overheard a staged yet civil conversation coming from a room regarding equipment failure. A man then exited the room with a greasy hand holding a pen. Condition 2 participants were also privy to a staged conversation from an unseen room. This conversation was â€Å"hostile† and was accompanied by the sound of breaking class and broken furniture. A man then exited the room holding a blood covered knife. Participants were asked to identify the men they saw from fifty photographs. Condition one participants accurately identified the man 49% of the time. However, condition two participants were able to accurately identify the man only 33% of the time. From these results, Loftus concluded that presence of a weapon and a hostile confrontation affected witness’s ability to identify the individual. They were unable to focus attention on the man because more attention was concentrated on the weapon. This study is important in demonstrating the impact a weapon has on the reliability of eyewitness’s testimony. However, there have been many criticisms of these experiments. No distinction is made as to whether the hostile experience affected participant’s memories or simply the weapon. There are also huge concerns over the ethics of this experiment, participants could have been psychologically damaged by the experience and were unable to withdraw from it as they were unaware it had already begun. This experiment was conducted under controlled conditions within a controlled environment; this strengthens the information obtained by increasing the ecological validity of the experiment. The findings are less transferable to real life situations. Chrstianson & Hubinette (1993) demonstrated that in real life settings, memory can be accurate with acute stress. Eyewitness testimony is heavily dependent upon face recognition, and so the study of this subject has acute implications in understanding how reliable memories of faces are. Research shows that people have difficulty accurately recognizing individual members of a different race. One explanation for this is that we use specific features to distinguish between members of our own race and those features are not always present between other races. In a study done by Platz and Hosch, (1986) convenience store clerks were asked to identify three customers: one white, one black, and one Mexican American, all of whom stopped in the store earlier that day. The results of the study showed that each of the clerks identified customers belonging to their own race accurately, but when attempting to identify members of the other races, they stated â€Å"they all look alike. † Cross-Race Identification Bias demonstrates how prone people are to making false identifications when asked to identity people from a different racial or ethnic background other than their own. This research offers some support to the existence of cross-race identification bias. However the experiment has many weaknesses; the participants may have seen many people that day and it’s unclear whether they were briefed prior to the experiment. This experiment has enhanced ecological validity because it is set in one environment. There are many independent variables within this research that if altered, may dramatically distort the previous findings. Fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed the cognitive interview† This is a specialised interviewing technique designed to increase the accuracy of information given and minimise false testimony. The interviewer attempts to eradicate all verbal & nonverbal responses that may affect the witness’s testimony. This is to avoid the â€Å"Clever Hans† effect where a witness’s may pick up cues. There are four basic principles of the cognitive interview; firstly to report everything; all details of an event, i ncluding information deemed irrelevant. Mental reinstatement of original context is another; the interviewee mentally recreates the incident fully. The interviewer may also change the timeline of events by reversing the events in order. Finally, the interviewee is instructed to imagine how other witnesses saw the incident. A meta-analysis found in 53 cases, an average increase of 34% in correct event recognition compared to a non-cognitive interview. However this was conducted within a laboratory not a real-life setting. Mine & Bull (2002) decided to test each of the four cognitive principles separately. Participants were interviewed with one cognitive principal as compared to the four. Recall of accurate information was broadly similar to other participants in a control group who were informed to â€Å"try again†. However, when participants were interviewed using a combination of the cognitive principles their components were significantly higher. Extremely young and old people tend to have an increased susceptibility to suggestion (Ceci & Bruck, 1993; Cohen & Faulkner, 1989) as well as those whom score high on measures of dissociation. It is clear that eyewitness testimony is not as reliable as a means of conviction as generally thought due to many various factors. There is however many improvements and safe guards that can be utilized to improve the reliability of eyewitness testimony such as; performing cognitive interviews and using multiple testimonies. Key factors such as: age, race, and the emotional stimulus of an event should be taken into account. Eyewitness testimony is a vital tool in convicting criminals but may not be accurate enough as a sole means of conviction.

Jung's Neo Psychodynamic Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Jung's Neo Psychodynamic Theory - Essay Example There are two main types of phobias, which are as follows: 1) specific phobia and 2) the social phobia (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). Commonly, specific phobia is a continuing and unfounded fear coupled with a strong sense of desire to steer clear of specific situations or objects (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). The extensive assortment of stimulus that may elicit the fear is usually lesser than in other types of phobia disorders, hence, specific phobias are also called simple phobias (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). Social phobia on the other hand is a â€Å"social anxiety disorder,† which if apparent in children is likewise termed â€Å"avoidant disorder† (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). People who experience social phobias are fearful of social activities like meetings, parties, making complaints, interacting with others, etc. Most individuals who suffer from this disorder believe that they are being scrutinized and assessed by others once they are out in public, that is why they shun to be within the midst of others, strangers and family members alike (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). In comparison to simple phobias, social phobia does not diminish as the individual grows older and disappears once puberty and early adulthood is reached. It has the reversed effect of the aforementioned phobia since social phobia continues or intensifies as the person grows older (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). Generally, phobias are offshoots of memories and imaginations; and are sometimes based on factual reasons. However, it is always best to be able to differentiate genuine fears from phobias as early as possible (Phobia Variations Defined and Explained, n.d.). The subject is a thirty-five year old female, married and currently working as a secretary in an urban city capital of Europe. Ms. Iris, the patient, is often uneasy in the company of others

Pick an ethnicity that lives on Long Island and discribe how the have Essay

Pick an ethnicity that lives on Long Island and discribe how the have adapted to life on long island - Essay Example In Long Island, the presence of the Chinese people in the area can hardly remain unnoticed and their impact to the ever-changing culture of the island can never be understated. Historical Background Based on government data, the first Chinese settlers of the United States arrived in 1820. During the California Gold Rush of 1848, a significant number of Chinese workers increased to over a hundred in the hope of finding their fortune in a foreign land. Years passed, more Chinese were transported to the country to do menial labor in the household, in the industries and in large projects such as the Central Pacific Railroad (1863). Practically, the early Chinese immigrants only sought for better economic opportunities in the New World; however, they were confronted with harsh discrimination and brutal treatment that they endured for decades (Zhao â€Å"Remaking† 39). The culmination of all the racism that the Chinese suffered occurred in 1882 when the Chinese Exclusion Act took ef fect. Until 1943, Chinese people were banned from immigrating to the ‘land of milk and honey.’ In the 70’s and 80’s, which is considered as the Second Wave of the Chinese immigration to the United States, citizens from Hong Kong, Taiwan and mainland China traversed the Pacific in search for a better life. Through the years, issues on illegal immigration and the threat of deportation were faced by the Chinese in the US. In 1992, the Chinese Student Protection Act, sponsored by Representative Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) was enacted to grant permanent residency status to all Chinese nationals who came to the US on or before April 1990 (Zhou 55-61). Vis-a-vis with California, New York has been the haven of the Chinese in this western soil where they continually grew in number and gradually established their communities. In fact, the New York Metropolitan Area has recently been hailed as the district outside Asia where the largest concentrations of Chinese populations reside. In 2008, there were approximately 659, 596 Chinese in the metropolis (Zhao â€Å"†The New Chinese† 41). Long Island’s Chinatown The Chinese Diaspora has stretched in the entire globe and reached almost all corners of it. In Long Island, such phenomenon can be affirmed through the myriad testaments that can be seen not only in the streets but also on how people live. True to it, its diverse cultural environment has incorporated the Chinese Way, which can be perfectly gleaned from its ethnic enclave called Chinatowns. As vibrant as the one in Lower Manhattan and would be comparable to the one in San Francisco and Vancouver, the Chinatown in Flushing, Queens is the new home for Chinese businesspersons and workers. Until the 70’s, Flushing was mostly dominated by Italian and Greek nationals who left the place due to an economic downturn. As large groups of people departed from the area and the housing prices dropped, the Chinese immigrants, and the oth er East Asians, started to settle and prevailed in the area since the early 80’s until today (Tsui 53). The busy Chinatown in Flushing is a fusion of the East and the West. There are American stores as well as Chinese stores, restaurants and supermarkets. In fact, one hotel in the area prides itself of its ‘distinctly Asian flair.’ Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese business enterprises can also be seen in the area. Another Chinatown can be located in the Sunset Park at Brooklyn. Purported to be one

Honey & Honey Products Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Honey & Honey Products - Research Paper Example The popularly used model is AIDA model, which includes four stages, namely awareness, interest, desire and action. These four stages occur when a consumer is confronted with some form of advertisement. Honey and Honey Products are basically in their introduction phase. This provides a good opportunity for the honey company to make a long-term impression on their consumer’s mind through positive brand building activities. Advertising and media relations will focus on building awareness and long-term relationship with consumers, while sales promotions and direct marketing activities will help in generating sales and revenues. Advertisement will consist of print, television and outdoor advertisements. Print advertisement will be included in popular cooking and home magazines, targeting women. Television advertisement will include a 30 second ad, which will be featured during prime time on popular local channels. The ad will be a combination of testimonies as well as information, where features and USP of the products and brand will be discussed. Outdoor advertisement includes billboards and flyers of Honey and Honey Products at different strategic places, such as, malls, shopping centres, food market as well as health and fitness gyms. According to the diagram above, it is evident that advertisement plays a significant role during initial stages of consumer decision making, i.e. awareness and interest. Also, good and effective advertisement will help in establishing positive brand equity and brand recognition. Public relation tools will be used for the publicity of new products. It will help in placing products among target consumers through press and media, thereby increasing consumer awareness and knowledge about Honey and Honey Products. Another strategy adopted by the company is customer satisfaction through 24x7 phone lines. This will not only solve

MBA Marketing - Report 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

MBA Marketing - Report 1 - Essay Example Littler corner market food makers have great motivation to be hopeful in todays commercial center. Expanded interest for distinguishing offering food products and buyers readiness to visit diverse retailers to get them—is making new promoting chances for food makers and processors that can offer imaginative stock intended to help and inclination of specific customer portion (Dudbridge, 2011). According to Lewis, (2009) Solidification in the food business has significantly gathered purchasing force under the control of simply a couple of expansive food buyers. At each phase of the worth chain, a little handful of vast firms are the predominant players. Four organizations (Tyson, Cargill, Quick, and National Meat Pressing) control 84% of the meatpacking business sector (Hester and Harrison, 2001). In flour processing, three organizations (Cargill/chs, ADM, and Conagra) control 55% of the business sector. At the retail end, Wal-Bazaar has one quarter of the $550 billion U.K. foodstuff market. The five top retail basic supply chains control more than a large portion of (52%) of the business sector and regularly utilize that power to take a bigger offer of the overall revenue far from farmers and other downstream suppliers of food. The aftereffect of the corporate combining has been a 49% expansion in the retailers offer of the shopper dollar and a 29% abatement in the farmer s offer since 1990. Social issue: A year in the wake of being on the cusp of passing historic point enactment to top nursery gasses, greens are coming to acknowledge the way that the shot of national and global movement on environmental change has ended up more remote than at any other time. The Ecological Insurance Office (EPA) is under ambush by recently enabled Republicans in Congress who contend that the general thought of natural security is unreasonably expensive for their obligation ridden nation. Usual to remaining idealistic even with

Ethics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethics - Assignment Example The common form of genetic manipulation involves the insertion of new genetic material to a place that’s not specified in the host genome. This is done by isolating and copying the genetic material of interest by using molecular cloning methods in order to come up with a DNA sequence that contain the necessary genetic elements for expression. The construct is then inserted into the host organism. There exist other forms of genetic engineering such as gene targeting and knocking out of specific genes through engineered nucleases (Lemaux, 2006). Cloning though not considered genetic engineering or modification is closely related and genetic engineering has been seen to be used within it. Synthetic biology on the other hand is a discipline that is emerging where there is an introduction of artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an organism. There are many resultants of genetic manipulations. When genetic materials from other species of organisms are add ed to a host the outcome is called a transgenic. When genes from same species that can interbreed are added to the result is a cisgenic. When genetic material is used to remove genetic material from another organism it results in a knockout organism (Lemaux, 2006). The process of genetic manipulation The first stage in genetic engineering is isolation of the gene. ... The third stage is called gene targeting where the gene is inserted in the host genome. The most common technique for doing his is random placement. Other techniques involve placing the gene in specific locations. Gene targeting uses is known to use homologous recombination to target desired changes to a specified endogenous gene (Beardmore & Porter, 2003). The fourth stage is called transformation and this is where the DNA is moved into an organism thereby altering its genotype or genetic makeup. There are various types of transformations but the most common is the Microinjection-injecting the DNA directly into the cell nucleus using an ultrafine needle. The fifth stage is called selection where the transformed cells are differentiated from the untransformed cells. If a given cell has been transformed successfully it usually contains a marker gene. The selection is done by growing the cell in a chemical that marks the cells that express that gene. The sixth stage is called regenerat ion where the organism is grown from the single transformed cell. In plants it is done through tissue culture while in animals it is done in embryonic cells. The last stage is confirmation and this is where the organism is analyzed to ensure that the genes will be expressed in an appropriate manner in the tissues of the organism. All the above seven steps are followed for successful genetic manipulation (Beardmore & Porter, 2003). Genetic safety There are many safety concerns that are brought about by genetically modified organisms. This has made studies be undertaken in this area to ascertain the extent to which the genetically modified organisms are safe in our environment or are safe for our consumption

Uninsured and Ill, A Woman is Forced to Ration Her Care Essay

Uninsured and Ill, A Woman is Forced to Ration Her Care - Essay Example Kaur, a year old lady who has suffered from glaucoma since she was a child. Hailing from a poor background, we see how her family struggled to take her to an optometrist who through and through prescribed stronger and stronger spectacles. Now a grown, married lady her illness is a crucial problem to her day to day work. Ms. Kaurs access to care for her eye condition has been affected by many situations. Ms. Kaur works in Manhattan newsstand, at her husband’s uncle, she makes $6 an hour, and she works from 6 am to 3 pm without lunch break for seven days a week. In her health condition, she uses glasses to see well. Her annual income when calculate sums up to $16000 per year. This amount does not qualify her or Medicaid or any other government health program for the poor. Occasionally she experiences eye throbbing pain that require medical attention. Her visits to the New York eye and ear infirmary, where she has been treated for glaucoma on and off since 1999, leave her in debt and having exhausted her earnings on medication and other necessities Ms. Kaur, sometimes avoids regular doctor visits. On many occasions, Ms. Kaur acts as her own physician and druggist though it is said that, with lack of professional attention, she may wind up causing a problem in her other eye. The absence of a regular doctor to examine her condition has also been seen as a barrier since she does not receive the free samples that many patients enjoy with regular doctors. A spokes’ woman for allergen explained that pharmaceutical companies have free drug programs for the poor. Ignorance is another barrier to Ms. Kaur health access the fact that she lacks a source of information about the readily available insurance programs for the poor, company programs for the uninsured this would have enabled her to receive xalatans for at least 6 months. Ms. Klau is also faced with cultural barriers, culturally a young woman in India was not allowed to work to make

Tv series Angels in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tv series Angels in America - Essay Example Prior Walker, a gay man who discovers he has AIDS, must deal with the end of a relationship while facing his own mortality. Through his numerous heavenly visions, he learns that he is a prophet, perhaps symbolizing hope and survival. At the beginning of the story, Louis Ironson is Prior’s neurotic boyfriend; later, however, he abandons the relationship once he discovers Prior is suffering from AIDS, unable to deal with a tragedy that symbolizes his own fears. Harper and Joe Pitt must address their own life-changing events: she attempts to numb her repressed life with drugs and must eventually face her husband’s homosexuality; and Joe must struggle with his sexual identity and issues of politics and homophobia. Two main characters are based on actual people: Roy Cohn and Ethel Rosenberg. Cohn’s voyage is not easy; he continually denies his sexuality and, until the end, holds tightly to his judgmental nature and conservatism. The ghost of Rosenberg visits Cohn in t he hospital as she struggles with her unjust execution and the desire to confront her prosecutor. Each character’s journey begins with tragedy and personal struggle, as these elements work well as dramatic sources of self-discovery. The various ways in which the main characters deal with the issue of homosexuality can me seen in their personal relationships and how they look at the world. Whether in or out of the closet, each character must face the stereotypes and social expectations of their sexuality. It is clear that the characters who refuse to face the truth of their sexual orientation struggle with the avoidance of their true nature and, in many ways, this dishonesty eats at their souls. Joe is living a lie through his marriage to Harper and gradually understands he must live a somewhat truer life, while Harper faces the repercussions of his decision. Cohn is perhaps the most repressed and

Capstone Checkpoint Essay Example for Free

Capstone Checkpoint Essay Looking back over the past nine weeks I must say that a large amount of valuable information has been presented to our class. The reading material, assignments, and class discussions have taught me some valuable lessons in the area of nutrition. The assignment that I learned the most from was the Week Two assignment about the digestive system. I now understand how the body uses the different types of food, the path food takes as it enters the body, and how the organs, including the salivary glands work together in the digestive process. However, my favorite part of Week Two came through the class discussions in the area of home remedies. I learned how a change in diet can prevent or help to cure digestive disorders. For example, Diverticulus can be treated at home by drinking plenty of fluid and eating fiber rich foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, etc. I enjoyed this part the most because I was forced to take medicine for an extended period of time and I really did not enjoy that experience. Therefore, learning natural ways to bring relief was truly refreshing for me.  Checkpoint from week one, three day diet analysis instructed me how to begin eating healthier. I made the necessary changes in my diet and by the time I reached the three day analysis for week six, I noticed some major changes in my eating habits. Currently I notice the different foods on my plate and the nutritional value that each has to offer. I refrain from eating meals (other than grains for breakfast like cereal or oatmeal) that does not include fruits or vegetables. Even on those days when I stop by a fast food place and grab a burger I avoid the fries, and I ask for extra pickles, lettuce, and tomato, to add more nutrients to the sandwich.

Define The Concept Of Culture Essay Example for Free

Define The Concept Of Culture Essay ‘Culture’ is the ways in which a society lives. A culture may share the same religions, beliefs, values, class or status, a culture can dress in a certain way and act in a way that follows the norms of how their society carries out life and what they deem as acceptable, culture can shared by a large group of people or a smaller group within society. For example there are ‘subcultures’, a subculture is a small group which have different way of life opposed to the majority of society; they may dress, talk and act in a different way. An example of subculture is a religious group, being a part of a religion may mean that people that are part of it dress differently, and have different values and ideas on life and live in a different way to the majority in society. Another example of a culture is ‘popular culture’ this is a culture that involves a large majority, and is highly influenced by the media, for example football is a sport that is frequently covered by the media by television, radio, news etc. And is a popular sport with a large following; other examples of pop culture are: pop music, bingo and mainstream fashion. Pop culture has a variety of people from different backgrounds being part of the same thing called a common culture which is shared by the masses. ‘High culture’ is another example of a culture that is shared with people and their families from a ‘higher class’. People that are part of the high culture are wealthy and have an ascribed status or come from a family with an ascribed status, meaning that they or the head of the family worked towards their success/wealth. They take part in activities associated with upper class such as: polo, lacrosse, hunting, and watching arts such as operas, ballets, orchestras. High culture attempts not allow people who are not from the same class or have the same status as them to join in with their clubs and activities this is called ‘social closure’ but this is difficult as more people can achieve super rich lifestyles, buying their way into high culture that may of came from a low class background. Pop culture is known as ‘low culture’ as people from ‘high culture’ are meant to be higher compared to them in class and status, th erefore people from low culture would not be wanted in high culture activities.

The Unilever market analysis and overview

The Unilever market analysis and overview To add vitality to life is Unilevers everlasting corporate mission, and it works to create a better future every day. Ever since Unilever was established in 1884 by the founder William Hesketh Lever, It has grown to one of worlds leading suppliers of fast moving consumer goods. Winning in the market place is one of the core secrets of its success (Unilever Global, 2010). In 1996, Unilevers market share of powder category in Brazil reached as high as 81 per cent with three brands: Omo, Minerva and Campeiro. Despite its brand name and company goodwill Unilever was unable to penetrate the detergent market in the North East (NE) of Brazil. The North East of Brazil constitutes twenty eight percent of Brazils total population with close to forty eight million low income consumers (Chandon Pacheco 2007).This report therefore aims at providing recommendations on the marketing strategy that Unilever should employ to target the low-income consumer segment. The report is structured into three parts namely consumer behaviour, brand identity, and the marketing mix followed by our recommendations. First we shall identify the consumer behaviour differences among laundry products customers in Brazil. Second we shall discuss whether Unilever should bring out a new brand, reposition its existing brand or go ahead with a brand extension to target the North Eastern Brazilian market. We will then briefly touch upon the positioning of the brand and discuss in detail the marketing mix. Theories and empirical data shall be applied where necessary. CONSUMER DIFFERENCES In order to make an effective marketing strategy, we should first analyse the consumer behaviour differences between the SE and NE segments of the laundry product market in Brazil. A deep understanding of the target consumer group is the first step in promoting a successful product to a new market (Chandon Pacheco 2007). The following table clearly shows the consumer behaviour differences between the two market segments. NORTH EAST SOUTH EAST 53% of the population live on less than two minimum wages. 21% of the population live on less than two minimum wages. Only 28% of households own a washing machine. Washing machines are a necessity with 67% of the population possessing a machine. Women scrub clothes using bars. Then they add bleach to remove stains little detergent powder at the end to make clothes smell good. Women mix powder detergent and softener in a washing machine and use laundry soap and bleach only to remove the toughest stains. North-easterners use a lot more soap (20kg) South Easterners use a lot less soap than the NE (7kg) Women often do their washing in a public place Most women wash clothes alone at home People attach the symbolic value to cleanliness; women see it as the dedication towards her family. Cleanliness has much lower relevance for self-esteem and social status It is essential to analyse the buyer role framework to understand the shopping habits of low income consumer. This in turn will help the firm in its marketing mix. Table 2 below analyses the buyer role framework for the laundry products in the NE segment: INITIATOR Women of the house INFLUENCER Friends, neighbours or relatives that the women meet at the public laundry area DECIDER Husband or in the case of the unmarried woman the financial head of the family sometimes even themselves. BUYER Husband and Wife or either one of them USER The Whole Family/Household Table 2: NE BUYER ROLE FRAMEWORK SOURCE- OWN COMPILATION Why are there such varied differences between the two consumer segments? The reasons can be attributed to some factors which influence their choices. All these factors can be divided into four aspects: cultural, social, personal and psychological. The first factor that should be taken into consideration is motivation which belongs to the psychological aspect; because the motives drive consumers to buy. We all know Maslows hierarchy of needs theory. According to his theory, motives can be divided into five categories: the physiological needs, the safety needs, the love needs, the esteem needs and the need for self-actualization. Among these categories, the physiological is the basic need, which means the fundamentals of survival (Maslow 1943, 370-396). Only if the lower needs are well gratified, can new set of higher needs emerge (Maslow 1943). As stated in the case, women in the NE of Brazil, who have very low incomes and poor living conditions, are just fulfilling the most basic need and hence will prefer a product that offers value for money. Another factor related to psychological aspect is beliefs and attitudes. Women in NE of Brazil attach symbolic value to the cleanliness of the clothes. They regard it as the dedication of the mother to her family. Due to this they would probably buy a laundry product with ability to remove stains. Lifestyle is also an important factor that influences behaviour under personal aspect. Lifestyle refers to the pattern of living as expressed in a persons activities, interests and opinions. Lifestyle analysis, categorizes consumers according to their beliefs, activities, values, and demographic characteristics such as education and income (Jobber, D. 2007). Women in the NE of Brazil, viewing washing clothes as one of the pleasurable routine activities of their week. The forth factor which influences their consumer behaviour is the social class. It is a sub factor of cultural aspect. People in NE of Brazil are the working class and those at lowest level of subsistence. Their social class is at the bottom of the pyramid. Their income can only sustain their daily basic needs, and these factors greatly affect their buying attitudes towards the laundry products. This is one reason for their extensive laundry soap usage. One factor of classifying households is based on their geographic location. This analysis is called geo demographics and is based on population census data. (Jobber, D. 2007). The households different economic conditions determine whether they will buy the kind of laundry product which may be less effective but with a more reasonable price or the best product without considering its price. The geographic location differences can enlighten the company to make the marketing strategies accordingly. BRAND IDENTITY Marketing managers aim at developing their products into brands to help them create a unique position in the minds of their customers (Jobber, 2007, p. 326). It is therefore essential to understand the difference between a product and a brand. A product can be anything that has the capacity to satisfy customer need. Branding is the process by which companies distinguish their product offering from the competition. (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 133). Branding enables customers to build relationship in terms of prestige, status, economy and eases the purchase decision (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 134). After analyzing the needs of the target market we as a strategic marketing team propose that Unilever should employ the brand extension strategy. 3.1 BRAND EXTENSION Brand extension refers to the use of an established brand name on a new brand within the same broad market (Jobber Fahy, 2006). As mentioned earlier, Unilever has three brands namely Omo, Minerva and Campeiro. Their prices are coherent with the order in which they are listed. Omo has been positioned as an expensive product with the ability to remove stains with low quantity when used in washing machines, thus reducing the need for soap or bleach. Minerva, the only brand having penetrated the laundry soap market and the detergent market has positioned itself has having an emotional appeal where as Campeiro stands out as the price brand (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 132). After closely examining the performance, characteristics, consumer preference and market penetration (in both the categories of laundry products) of the three brands we propose that Unilever should apply the brand extension strategy to Minerva. This will provide a good opportunity for Minerva as a brand to increase its mar ket share in the laundry soap market, which is currently being dominated by other local or international products. Also the strong brand identity of Minerva can be sustained into the future through this extension (Jobber, 2007, p. 370). Minerva proves to be the right choice for brand extension because it is correctly priced and positioned unlike its sister brands which are either too low (Campeiro) giving the idea of low quality, or either too high (Omo) making it out of reach to our target market. Our target market being the women in the North East of Brazil and considering their washing traits (Table 1) we propose that Minervas extension be a laundry soap that will try to cater to all of the needs of the North Eastern women or household. Also the North East market for laundry soap is very fragmented because laundry soap is much easier to produce than powdered detergent. Laundry soap is also seen as multi-use product that has many home and personal care uses. The brand will be called Minerva Brilhar- Sabà £o Multi Purpose (Multi Purpose Soap). Under the brand flagship we propose to launch three products namely Minerva Brilhar Alfazema, Minerva Brilhar Cà ­trico and Minerva Brilhar Coco.The reason for choosing three variants is to reduce the risk of the product not being acknowledged by the mass. A detailed explanation of all the three variants will be discussed under the marketing mix. 3.1.1 JUSTIFICATION FOR CHOOSING BRAND EXTENSION A strong brand provides a strong foundation for leveraging positive perceptions and goodwill from the core brand to brand extensions. The new brand benefits from the added value that the brand equity of the core brand bestows on the extension (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 136). Minerva as a brand has a considerable share in both the laundry soap and detergent market. Though not the largest in terms of sales or market share, its positioning makes it the most popular or sought after brand. The use of brand extension is an important marketing tool. The two main advantages of brand extension in launching new products are that: Reduces risk Less costly than alternative launch strategies (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142). Both distributors and consumers may perceive less risk if the new brand comes or is part of an already established brand name (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142). The North Eastern side of Brazil has very few malls and supermarkets. Small retailers with small-to- midsized shops are very dominant. Due to their restricted clientele and their spending power shopkeepers would generally be skeptical in shelving a new brand, until and unless they were being paid for shelving the particular product. Consumers generally seem to attribute the quality associations they have of the original brand to the new one (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142).Launch costs may also be reduced by using brand extension. Since the established brand name is already well known the task of building awareness of the new brand is not required. Consequently advertising, sales and promotional costs are reduced (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142). Furthermore, there is the likelihood that the company may be able to bank upon advertising economies of scale since advertisements for the original brand and its extension reinforce each other (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142). Looking at the other side of the coin, there is also the danger that the marketing management will underfund the launch of the product, beleiving that the spin off effects of the original brand name will compensate. This can lead to low awareness. Another effect is cannibalization, which refers to a situation where the new brand gains sales at the expense of the existing brand. There is also the danger that bad publicity for one brand can affect the reputation of the other brands under the same umbrella. Also if a brand name is extended too far there can be a loss of credibility and this is something that the management needs to guard itself against (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 142). Brand extensions are likely to be successful if they make sense to the consumer. If the values and aspirations of the new target segement (s) match those of the original segement, and the qualities of the brand name are likewise highly prized then success is likely (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 143). 4. MARKETING STRATEGIES: 4.1Market segmentation Targeting: Market segmentation is the technique used by marketers to gain an understanding about a diverse nature of markets. Market segmentation may be defined as the identification of individuals or organisations with similar characteristics that have significant implications for the determination of marketing strategy (Jobber, 2007, p. 275) Market segmentation provides the basis for the selection of target markets. The company decides the target market that it wants to serve. As customers in the target market segment are homogenous, a single marketing mix strategy can be developed to match those requirements (Jobber, 2007). The consumer segmentation criteria can be classified into three broad groups: Behavioural, psychological and profile variables (Jobber, 2007).In reference to the case at hand, Unilever is focussing on marketing its laundry products to the low income consumers in North East part of Brazil. Since the consumers in this region are homogenous a single marketing mix strategy can be developed. The launch of Minerva Brilhar aims at targeting the market with the following factors taken into consideration: Buyers: Household women from NE part of Brazil Benefits Sought: Fragrance, Multi-use product. Purchase occasion: Self Buy Lifestyle: Conservatives with traditional values. Gender: Female Social Class: Lower income. Income: 53% of population live on less than two minimum wages. Geographic: North East VS South East part of Brazil. 5. Marketing Mix Marketing Mix is the planned management of the customer relationship including product, price, place and promotion (Jobber, 2007, p. 1001). In what follows, each of the aforementioned elements of marketing mix is discussed in further detail. 5.1 Product Strategies: For some time now it has been conventional for marketers to think in terms of different product levels (Jobber Fahy, 2006).Managing products from a marketing perspective can be explained using the three product levels namely core product, actual product and augmented product as seen in Figure 3. Figure 3: PRODUCT FROM A MARKETING PERSPECTIVE SOURCE ADAPTED: (Jobber Fahy, 2006) The three product levels that are depicted in the figure above can be applied to the case of Minerva Brilhar as shown in Table 3. Core product Convenience, Familiarity, Reassurance and Fragrance Actual Product Plastic pack, Images with text, Modern look to the laundry bar with a ready to use image Augmented Product Satisfaction, Guarantee, Ease of use. Table 3: PRODUCT LEVEL ANALYSIS OF MINERVA BRILHAR SOURCE: OWN COMPILATION USING TEXT FROM (Jobber Fahy, 2006). The characteristics of Minerva Brilhar are discussed below across various criterions: Key product drivers: Various fragrances to choose from, ability to remove stains, better grip, multi-use product (can be used for other home and personal care uses), value for money and longer life of the product. Packaging: Plastic pack of 250 gms x 4 bars with images and text. Each flavour will be packed in individually. Flavour and Ingredients: Three flavours namely Lavender (Alfazema), Citrus (Citrico) and Coconut (Coco). The patented formulae and technology developed by Hindustan Unilever in India for its brand Rin Supreme (sister company) will also be used to develop the above mentioned products. The technology used by HUL is called Pure Clean. The supposed technology would keep clothes looking new for longer unlike other detergent bars which contains 40% mined ingredients (Exchange4media, 2002) Product positioning: Our products tag line would be Keeps your family spotless for longer. The images of the product Minerva Brilhar are seen below. Minerva Brilhar- Sabà £o Multi Purpose SOURCE:OWN COMPILATION SOURCE:OWN COMPILATION 5.2 Price Strategy: Price from a marketing perspective can be defined as the sacrifice a consumer is prepared to make in exchange for the benefits of having a product or service, in order to achieve good value. The value is determined as a function of price, functional benefits and emotional benefits (Jobber Fahy, 2006).Therefore in reference to Minerva Brilhar; we provide improved value to customers by using the differentiation approach strategy wherein the product benefits are enhanced by maintaining the price. Minerva Brilhar is reasonably priced as compared to the other Unilever detergent brands. The product provides enhanced value in terms of functional benefits such as ease of use with a better grip and is a multipurpose product. It also caters to the emotional benefits of the NE Brazilian customers such as cleanliness and provides a range of pleasant fragrances. 5.21: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PRICING DECISIONS OF MINERVA BRILHAR: The pricing decision of products is influenced by internal and external factors. While deciding the price for Minerva Brilhar the following factors were taken into consideration. Marketing strategy: The differentiation strategy of pricing is suggested since the product has enhanced value and is priced at a nominally higher price than the existing Unilever products. Marketing Mix: The quality of the product was enhanced in terms of better grip and more variety of fragrances for multipurpose use. Length of the distribution channel: The length of the distribution channel is long in the NE Brazilian market therefore the distributor mark up price is increased slightly. 5.22: KEY BASES FOR PRICE SETTING: There are three key methods used by managers to set prices namely cost based pricing, competition pricing and marketing pricing. The figure below briefly explains the three pricing methods. Figure 4: KEY BASES FOR SETTING PRICE SOURCE ADAPTED FROM: (Jobber Fahy, 2006) The pricing method adopted in the case of Minerva Brilhar is the marketing/customer based pricing wherein the price of the product is designed based on attaching appropriate price to reflect the benefits offered to the customers (Dr.Angela Tregear, 2010). The market orientation approach was used to decide the prices. Minerva Brilhar will be priced at 1.71$/kg. Table 4 will outline the cost break up of Minerva Brilhar The cost break up constitutes of formulation cost of 1.05$/kg due to added features in the product such as three variants in flavour and better grip with a pure clean formula. The packaging cost will be 0.15$/kg as it is a plastic pack with four bars. The promotional cost is slightly higher at 0.32 $/kg as heavy promotion is needed to build awareness for the brand extension. The major challenge faced by Unilever in pricing their products was to divert its funds from its premium brands to invest in a lower margin market. Therefore, pricing Minerva Brilhar at a price that is affordable by the mass can allow Unilever to penetrate the market better. 5.3 Promotion strategies: Promotional activities can be broad and are aimed at the market as a whole. The overall range of techniques available to the marketer is usually known as the promotional mix and comprises seven main elements which are represented in Figure 4 (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 217). Figure 5: SEVEN MAIN ELEMENTS OF PROMOTIONAL MIX SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM (Jobber Fahy, 2006) The promotion of Minerva Brilhar will be done through advertising, sales promotion and sponsorship. A key point to note here is that almost all Brazilians irrespective of their incomes are avid television watchers (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 133). Despite of this fact, Unilever has responded by reducing the amount of advertising it places on television and instead switching to outdoor and internet advertising (Jobber Fahy, 2006).Therefore retaining the existing Unilever marketing strategy of outdoor and internet advertising the product will be advertised will the help of posters on small stores. Radio will also be used as an alternative to television for delivering the message across to a wide number of audiences. The other means of promotion that we propose for the new brand is through sales promotions. Consumer promotion techniques such as free samples can be introduced to encourage trial as this can be effective for brand extension (Jobber Fahy, 2006). In the case of Minerva Brilhar we will sell 20g of free sample with the purchase of each pack of any flavour. The final step of promotion for our brand will be through sponsorship. Considering the popularity of football in Brazil we propose that the sponsorship be in the form of a football match played by four teams namely Minerva, Minerva Brilhar Alfazema, Minerva Brilhar Cà ­trico and Minerva Brilhar Coco. We will encourage the North Eastern locals to participate in the match.This will indeed create an awareness among the minds of the consumers.There will also be wet demos of the product at the end of the match for consumers to visualise the features of the product.Radio shall also be used inorder to promote the event. 5.4 Distribution strategy: The final part of the jigsaw is the distribution,the place element of the marketing mix.Products must be available in adequate quantities, in convienent locations and at times when customers want to buy them.According to Jobber and Fahy,distribution channel is the means by which products are moved from producer to end consumer (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 285).Choosing the most effective marketing channel is as crucial aspect of a marketing strategy. 5.41 COMPONENTS OF DISTRIBUTION STRATEGY: All products require a channel for distribution. There are various channels of distributions. The most difficult decision is to decide which channel of distribution to choose. The distribution strategy comprises of three components namely channel selection, distribution intensity and channel integration. Channel selection: The main challenge for Unilever was that they lacked a strong distribution network in NE part of Brazil (Jobber Fahy, 2006, p. 134).This makes it indeed difficult for a product that is new to the market to position itself well. Keeping the practicality of the situation in mind, to establish a strong distribution channel for Minerva Brilhar would be to get access to as many specialised distributors as possible for the product to be recognised in the market. By keeping the channel length short, we will be able to cater to the mark up price of distributors. Distribution intensity: The distribution intensity for Minerva Brilhar will be intensive as it essential for the product to reach the 75,000 small outlets spread over the North East. The product should be easily accessible or else the purpose of creating a brand extension is defeated. 6. CONCLUSION: Prahalad Hart (2002) in an article state an interesting statement that low income markets present a prodigious opportunity for the worlds wealthiest companies-to seek their fortunes and bring prosperity to the aspiring poor (Prahalad Hart, 2002). Unilevers own analysis of Nirma and HLLs competition in the detergent business reveals more about the profit potential of the marketplace at the bottom of the pyramid (Prahalad Hart, 2002).This theory is widely known as the bottom of the pyramid theory. It is essential for an organisation to bear in mind that they must focus on low income consumer segments as value-demanding customers (Rajghatta, 2010). In relevance to the case at hand, Unilever can adopt the bottom of pyramid theory and develop products exclusively for the lower income segments wherein producing only cheap and low quality products must not be an ultimate goal. The company can earn immense profits if it rightly creates a good quality product with the value for money. The brand extension strategy as proposed should be the right decision for Unilever as it can provide a wide range of products with value for money to the customers. If Unilever adopts the bottom of the pyramid theory in the right fashion it surely will move towards the road of success.